What is a Relative Pronoun?
A relative pronoun introduces a relative clause — a dependent clause that gives additional information about a noun or pronoun in the main clause. The noun or pronoun the clause refers back to is called the antecedent.
The lawyer who won the case became famous.
| Element | Example | Role |
|---|---|---|
| Antecedent | the lawyer | The noun being described |
| Relative pronoun | who | Connects clause to antecedent |
| Relative clause | who won the case | Gives information about antecedent |
The Six Main Relative Pronouns
British English uses six relative pronouns, each with distinct rules governing when and how they are used.
| Pronoun | Refers to | Subject | Object | Possessive |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| who | persons | ✓ | — | — |
| whom | persons | — | ✓ | — |
| whose | persons & things | — | — | ✓ |
| which | things, animals, whole clauses | ✓ | ✓ | — |
| that | persons & things (defining only) | ✓ | ✓ | — |
| what | "that which" — no antecedent | ✓ | ✓ | — |
The subject of the relative clause; performs the action.
The object of the relative clause; receives the action.
Shows possession; accepted for both people and things in British English.
Refers to things, animals, or entire preceding clauses.
Used for persons or things, but only in defining (restrictive) clauses.
Means the thing that; contains its own antecedent.
Who — Subject, Referring to Persons
Who is used when the relative pronoun is the subject of the relative clause — that is, when it performs the action of the verb.
The student who won the prize is absent.
The barrister who argued the case was brilliant.
The nurse who treated him worked a double shift.
Replace who with he / she / they. If it makes sense, who is correct.
She won the prize ✓ → use who
In each example above, who performs the verb that follows: won, argued, treated. The pronoun is doing the action, not receiving it.
Whom — Object, Referring to Persons
Whom is used when the relative pronoun is the object of the relative clause — it receives the action rather than performing it.
Formal British English
The witness whom the police questioned later testified.
The candidate whom the panel selected was outstanding.
Replace whom with him / her / them. If it works, whom is correct.
The police questioned him ✓ → use whom
Informal British English
Modern British English frequently replaces whom with who or that in speech and informal writing:
The witness who the police questioned later testified. (informal)
The witness that the police questioned later testified. (informal)
Whom is retained in formal and legal writing and is required after prepositions (see §12). In everyday speech, who is widely accepted as a substitute.
Whose — Possession (Persons and Things)
Whose expresses possession. A widespread misconception holds that whose can only refer to people. British grammar explicitly accepts whose for things.
For Persons
The author whose book won the award attended the ceremony.
The judge whose ruling was appealed delivered a written opinion.
For Things (Perfectly Grammatical in British English)
A company whose profits declined announced layoffs.
A house whose roof collapsed was demolished.
The Act whose provisions were repealed dated from 1948.
A company whose profits declined announced layoffs.
A company the profits of which declined announced layoffs.
The whose version is endorsed as more natural by the Oxford Style Manual and Fowler's Modern English Usage. The of which form, while grammatically valid, often sounds unnecessarily stiff.
Which — Things, Animals, and Whole Clauses
Which refers to things, animals, or entire preceding clauses. It may function as either subject or object of the relative clause.
As Subject
The report which was submitted was incomplete.
The legislation which governs this area is under review.
As Object
The report which he submitted was incomplete.
The evidence which the court accepted proved decisive.
Referring to a Whole Clause (Sentential Relative)
Here which refers not to a single noun but to the entire preceding statement. This construction always requires a comma and forms a non-defining clause.
She missed the train, which annoyed her greatly.
He refused to apologise, which surprised everyone.
In the sentential relative, which does not stand for any single noun — it represents the whole situation described before the comma. That cannot be used in this construction.
That — Defining Clauses Only
That is used exclusively in defining (restrictive) clauses and may refer to both persons and things.
Persons
The man that called yesterday is waiting.
She was the only person that understood the problem.
Things
The Act that governs this area remains in force.
The book that I borrowed is excellent.
That is treated as ungrammatical in non-defining clauses by modern British grammar.
Preferred after Superlatives and Certain Words
British grammar favours that in the following contexts:
| Context | Example |
|---|---|
| Superlatives | This is the best judgment that I have read. |
| all | All that he said was true. |
| everything | Everything that happened was unexpected. |
| only | She was the only witness that testified. |
| first / last | He was the first student that arrived. |
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What — "That Which" (No Antecedent)
What is often misunderstood. It means the thing(s) that or that which and does not have a separate antecedent in the sentence — it contains its own antecedent within itself.
Take what you need.
I believe what she said.
What he did was unacceptable.
Take the thing that you need.
I believe that which she said.
The thing that he did was unacceptable.
Common Error
What cannot be used when there is already a noun (antecedent) present in the sentence.
If there is already a noun before the relative clause, use that or which — never what. What stands entirely alone, without a separate antecedent.
Defining vs Non-Defining Relative Clauses
This is one of the most important distinctions in English relative clause grammar. The two types differ in meaning, punctuation, and choice of relative pronoun.
A. Defining (Restrictive) Clauses
These clauses identify exactly which person or thing is meant. Without the clause, the sentence would be incomplete or ambiguous. No commas are used.
The student who scored highest received a medal.
The Act that was passed in 1972 remains in force.
The report which he submitted was incomplete.
The surgeon that operated has thirty years' experience.
In the first example: which student? → The one who scored highest. Remove the clause and you lose the meaning.
B. Non-Defining (Non-Restrictive) Clauses
These clauses add extra information about a noun already clearly identified. The sentence remains grammatically complete without the clause. Commas are required on both sides.
Lord Denning, who served as Master of the Rolls, was a celebrated jurist.
The Magna Carta, which was signed in 1215, remains historically significant.
The committee, whose report was leaked, now faces an inquiry.
The defendant, whom the jury acquitted, left the court in silence.
Side-by-Side Comparison
| Type | Example | Clause necessary? | Commas? | Can use that? |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Defining | The lawyer who won is here. | Yes | No | ✓ |
| Non-defining | Mr Singh, who won, is here. | No | Yes | ✗ Never |
Zero Relative Pronoun (Omission)
When the relative pronoun is the object of its clause, it may be omitted entirely. This is called the zero relative and is common in both speech and informal writing.
| Full Form | Zero Relative |
|---|---|
| The evidence that they presented was inconclusive. | The evidence they presented was inconclusive. |
| The book which I bought is interesting. | The book I bought is interesting. |
| The person whom I met was helpful. | The person I met was helpful. |
| The film that we watched was excellent. | The film we watched was excellent. |
When Omission is Impossible
If the relative pronoun is the subject of the relative clause, it cannot be omitted.
Ask: is the relative pronoun performing the action of the clause verb? If yes → it is the subject → it cannot be omitted. If no → it is the object → omission is possible.
Which vs That in British English
Many learners and textbooks oversimplify this distinction. The full picture for British English is as follows.
In Defining Clauses — Both Are Acceptable
Both are equally grammatical in British English. There is no strong preference between them in defining clauses.
In Non-Defining Clauses — Only Which
British vs American Style
| Tradition | Defining Clause | Non-Defining Clause |
|---|---|---|
| British English | which or that — both accepted | which only |
| American style guides (e.g. Chicago) | Prefer that | which only |
The American preference for that in restrictive clauses is a style preference, not a grammatical rule, and does not apply in British English. Both which and that remain fully correct in British defining clauses.
Prepositions in Relative Clauses
Relative clauses involving prepositions can be constructed in two ways in British English, depending on register.
The proposal to which he objected was approved.
The person with whom she travelled arrived safely.
The court before which he appeared was the High Court.
The proposal which he objected to was approved.
The person who she travelled with arrived safely.
The court that he appeared before was the High Court.
Both constructions are grammatically acceptable in British English. Formal and legal writing strongly favours the fronted preposition with whom and which. Note that that and informal who are used when the preposition is stranded at the end.
Summary of Key Rules
The following rules are consistent
Who → people, subject role: The judge who presided was impartial.
Whom → people, object role (formal): The witness whom they questioned testified.
Whose → possession, people and things: A firm whose accounts were audited…
Which → things, animals, whole clauses: The Act, which was repealed, dated from 1888.
That → defining clauses only: The only rule that matters is consistency.
What → "that which", no antecedent: What he said was false.
Defining clauses → no commas: The student who passed was congratulated.
Non-defining clauses → commas required: Mr Ali, who passed, was congratulated.
That is never used in non-defining clauses: ✗ Oxford, that is old, is prestigious.
Object pronouns may be omitted: The case (that) he cited was relevant.
Subject pronouns cannot be omitted: ✓ The judge who ruled… ✗ The judge ruled…
In British English, which and that are both valid in defining clauses: The law which/that applies here…
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